"Tablespoonfuls" and "Teaspoonfuls"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Which is it: "tablespoonsful" or "tablespoonfuls"? "Teaspoonsful" or "teaspoonfuls"?

Answer: I never can remember either. I guess "tablespoonsful" would mean using several tablespoons at the same time. That doesn't make much sense. So it's one tablespoon that takes three tablespoonfuls of sugar. Same with "teaspoonfuls."

Rating of Distraction: (*) in speaking. I doubt if anyone gives the distinction any thought. Both versions are jawbreakers--UGLY. Logic, though, does suggest that it's one teaspoon which takes three "teaspoonfuls" of sugar. (**) in writing.

"Supine" and "Prone"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning; = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Any other words that might be confused that you never heard of?

Answer: Yes. How about "Supine," which means lying on the ground face up; "prone" means lying on the ground face down. Once again, thanks to the NYT Manual of Style and Usage. I did not know the distinction existed. I do remember that in the army, "Assume the prone position" meant "Hit the dirt with your rifle ready to fire."

Rating of Distraction: *. These words, "supine" and "prone" don't confuse. They have distinctively different meanings. I don't know if anyone besides the NYT Manual of Style and Usage ever heard of the word "supine," but whether it's "supine" or "prone," "face up" or "face down" is the picture readers will have.

"Stanch" and "Staunch"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What are some confusing words that not too many people know about?

Answer: "Stanch" and "staunch" for starters. "Stanch means to stop the flow of something, usually blood. "Staunch" means firm and resolute, as in "He was a staunch defender of the Faith."

Rating of Distractibility (**). Many people know these words and rarely confuse them, probably because their meanings are so different. Confusing them would be a real "laugher."

The Subjunctive

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What on earth is the "subjunctive"?

Answer: The subjunctive means "contrary to fact." "I wish I were...." "As if he were...."

"I wish..." and "As if..." are almost always followed by "were."

The problem is with "If." If "if" means contrary to fact, use "were": "If he were here, we'd know the answer."

If "if" is a statement of fact, use the singular past tense, "was." "He asked if she was going on vacation this month."

If you're not sure, write around it: "I wish I could go with you" instead of "I wish I were going with you."

Rating of Distractibility: (**). You'll have to use some fast thinking, if you're using the subjunctive when speaking.

Split Infinitive

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I've heard someone say that one of the worst crimes you can commit against English is to split infinitives. What is an infinitive and why is it wrong to split it?

Answer: "To" with a verb is called an infinitive: "to run," etc.

To put a word between the "to" and the verb is called a "split infinitive," cursed by many a grammar purist: "to better prepare...."

If the split infinitive sounds smooth, use it. Don't make an awkward construction in order to un-split the infinitive. When in doubt, write around it: Instead of "...to better prepare," "I can improve my preparation by...."

A matter of judgment.

Level of Distraction: (*). Everybody does it.

"Shined" and "Shone"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Is there a difference between "shined" and "shone"?

Answer: "Shine," "shined," "shone": Use "shined" with a direct object: "He shined the flashlight on the house." "Flashlight" is the direct object of "shined." Shined what? "Flashlight."

Without the direct object, use "shone": "The sun shone only once this week." Thanks to the NYT Manual of Style and Usage.

Rating of distractibility: (***). I didn't know the distinction! But the "sun shined" would not sound right. Nor would, "He shone the flashlight." On the basis of sound alone, I think many people would be distracted. I learned something writing this blog. RayS.

Spelling: Almost Guaranteed to be Misspelled

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I'm at a party. What's one word that is almost guaranteed to be misspelled?

Answer: I can think of several. "Cemetery." "Minuscule." But I think "sacrilegious" will get 'em every time.

"Sacrilegious": Does not contain the word "religious." Again, I use Harry Shefter's Six Minutes a Day to Perfect Spelling: "You RILE me with your sacRILEgious ideas."

Rating of Distraction: (*). I don't think too many people will even notice that the word is misspelled. And even fewer will ever use the word.

Quotation Marks: Question Marks and Exclamation Points

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Okay. Periods and commas ALWAYS inside closing quotation marks. Semicolons and colons ALWAYS outside closing quotation marks. What about question marks and exclamation points?

Answer: Here's where it gets tricky. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside closing quotation marks if the entire sentence is a quote and outside the closing quotation marks if the quotation is only part of the sentence.

"Are you going to stand there all day?" Quotation is a complete sentence. Inside.

I believe that the very best short story I ever read was "Most Dangerous Game"! Quotation PART of the sentence. Outside. Try putting the quote in the middle of the sentence to see more clearly that the exclamation point is outside the quotation marks: I believe "Most Dangerous Game" is the best short story I ever read!

The British and the Canadians do this with every mark of punctuation--I think. I don't know about the semicolons and the colons. But in America, punctuate as Americans do. Commas and periods INSIDE closing quotation marks. Semicolons and colons OUTSIDE closing quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points INSIDE when the entire sentence is a quote. OUTSIDE when the quotation is only part of the sentence.

Rating of Distraction: ***. It's the American way! Ta Da!

Quotes: Semicolons and Colons.

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Okay, I will remember that commas and periods ALWAYS are placed INSIDE closing quotation marks. What about semicolons and colons?

Answer: Glad you asked. The answer is another ALWAYS. Semicolons and colons ALWAYS are placed OUTSIDE closing quotation marks.

I just finished reading the short story "Most Dangerous Game"; it was one of the best stories I ever read.

The president entitled his speech, "The Future of Barvard College": "It will surprise you," he said.

Rating of Distraction: (***). Who says punctuation is complicated? In America, you ALWAYS place COMMAS and PERIODS INSIDE closing quotation marks. You ALWAYS place SEMICOLONS and COLONS OUTSIDE closing quotation marks.

But there is one slight complication. Question marks and Exclamation points. I'll go over those marks of punctuation next.

Quotes: The One Mistake You Should Never Make

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I have heard you say that there is one mistake in punctuation people should never make. What is it?

Answer: Quotes. Remember that in America, periods and commas are ALWAYS placed INSIDE closing quotation marks. That includes single quotes. "According to her, everything was 'peachy clean.' "

"I read the story 'Most Dangerous Game.' "

In Britain and Canada, this approach to the closing quote is not followed. Instead, the comma and period are treated like the American question mark or exclamation point.

But the surest way to tip off how little a person knows about punctuation in America is not to put commas and periods inside closing quotation marks. I know. I was blasted by one of my teachers who disgustedly said to my class, English majors, that we did not even know enough to put commas and periods inside closing quotation marks. I never forgot his stinging criticism.

Level of Distraction: = (***). Make this mistake in America, and it's a dead give away that you know nothing about American punctuation in English. The one mistake you should never make!

Tomorrow: What to do about question marks and exclamation points in America.

"Protagonist" and "Antagonist."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: In literature class my teacher is always referring to the "protagonist." I can't ever seem to remember what it means.

Answer: The "protagonist" is the central figure in a drama or novel. Usually the "protagonist" is "for" something," wants something he or she can't have. Remember the "pro" which is a prefix that means "for."

An "antagonist" is against something, an adversary, usually working against the "protagonist," keeping the "protagonist" from getting what he or she wants. Remember "anti-" which means "against."

Rating of Distraction: Not much chance of mixing up these two words. The prefixes say all you need to know.

"Prophecy" and "Prophesy"

Levels of Distraction: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: "Prophecy" and "Prophesy." What's the difference? Which is the noun and which is the verb?

Answer: "Prophecy" is the noun. "The ascetic in the desert made a prophecy about the future." The verb is "prophesy." "He prophesied that the world was about to come to an end." The difference is between the "c" and the "s." "Prophecy" is a noun and is the statement that the prophet issues. The prophet will "prophesy" (verb).

Rating of Distraction: (***). You can't use a noun when a verb is called for and you can't use a verb when a noun is called for.

"Principal" and "Principle"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: How do you differentiate "principal" and "principle"?

Answer: The best solution I ever found was in Harry Shefter's Six Minutes A Day to Perfect Spelling. "Principal": "The princiPAL is my PAL." The head of a school, that is. "PrincipAl" = mAin. "Spend the interest, but don't touch the principAl," that is, the original investment. OR, "That was the principAl (or mAin) reason we lost the game."

"PrincipLE," according to Shefter, can be remembered by relating it to "ruLE." "The Ten Commandments are the principLEs (or ruLEs) by which I live."

Rating of Distraction: ***. You don't ever want to make that mistake.

"Preventive" and "Preventative"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's wrong with using the word "preventative"?

Answer: Sounds pompous. By adding an extra syllable to "preventive" you are trying to make yourself sound important. "Be sure to use preventive (not "preventative") measures against skin cancer."

Rating of Distraction: **. I know that "preventative" is in the dictionary. When you can use "preventive," why use the extra syllable? Those who appreciate clear, concise language will be nauseated by the use of the word "preventative." RayS., the language curmudgeon.

"Prescribe" and "Proscribe"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I know that doctors prescribe prescriptions. But what the heck does "proscribe" mean?

Answer: The difference is between two little vowels. "PREscribe" orders that something be done. "PROscribe" forbids you to do something. "From here on, swimming in that place is proscribed." OR "prohibited" OR "forbidden."

Rating of Distraction: ***. "Proscribe" is not a particularly common word. But don't mix it up with "prescribe." The mistake would be a "howler."

"...concerned about the plane's leaving"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: "He was so happy at your coming...." Benny Goodman's mother to Benny on his learning of his father's death (from the movie, The Benny Goodman Story). Why not "...you coming"?

Answer: Not many people get this problem right. The concern is with Benny's (your) coming, not Benny. If he had been concerned with Benny, the sentence would have to be rewritten: "He was concerned about you."

Another example will be the best explanation: "He was concerned about the plane's leaving." He was concerned about the "leaving," not the plane. "Plane" becomes possessive. If he were concerned about the plane, on the other hand, you would need to rewrite the sentence: "He was concerned about faulty maintenance on the plane, which was leaving." Got that?

Rating of Distraction: This is one of those judgments that rewards rather than criticizes. If you are able to determine the emphasis on "leaving" or "plane" you deserve a blue ribbon of merit.

"Notorious" and "Noted"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Both these words mean well known or famous. Can't they be used interchangeably?

Answer: "Notorious" has the negative connotation of illegal or evil. "He is notorious for his gambling."

"Noted" has a positive connotation: "He is a noted poet."

Rating of Distractibility: (***). Sorry, but using these words in the wrong situation jars on my sensibility.

"None"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What follows "None"? "Is" or "Are"?

Answer: I'm from the old school. "None" means to me "Not one." "One" is singular, so the verb is "is." "None of the students is going." The phrase "of the students" confuses the issue because it is plural. Still, the subject is "None" and "None" means "Not one...." and, therefore, the verb is "is."

People who are from the "new" school believe that either a singular or plural verb can follow "None."

Rating of Distractibility: (*). Unless you're dealing with a complete purist like me, no one will worry whether the verb is singular or plural. I have grown used to hearing "None" followed by the singular verb, but I would not correct someone else's use of "None" with the plural.

"Neither...."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What verb follows "Neither"?

Answer: "Neither is...." "Neither of them is going." "Neither" is singular; verb is singular.

"Neither...nor...." "Neither train nor plane is leaving." Both subjects singular. Singular verb.
"Neither...nor...." "Neither trains nor planes are leaving." Both subjects plural. Verb is plural.

Mixed Subjects--AVOID!
"Neither...nor...." "Neither train nor planes are leaving." Second subject is plural; requires plural verb.
"Neither...nor...." Neither planes nor the train is leaving." Second subject is singular; requires singular verb. Awkward. Avoid.

Better: "Neither planes nor trains are leaving." Subjects plural; verb is plural.
Better: "Neither plane nor train is leaving." Subjects singular; verb is singular.

Rating of Distractibility = (***). "Neither is...." "Neither plane nor train is leaving." "Neither planes nor trains are leaving."

"Militate" and "Mitigate"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I'm always confused by these two words. How can I remember which is which?

Answer: "Militate against...." "His bad habits militate against [work against] his success."

"Mitigate" means to soften or ease.... "The support of her family mitigated the loss of her son."

Rating of Distractibility: (**). Remember "militate against." There is no "against" with "mitigate."

"Media" and "Medium"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Hasn't "media" pretty much been accepted as singular as well as plural?

Answer: I think so. Technically, the "media" is a combination of newspapers and electronic films, pictures and text. Plural. One of these, the newspaper, for example is a "medium." Most people I listen to consider the "media" to be a public presentation of information regardless of format and whether there is a single format or several formats.

Rating of Distractibility: (**)--for those who insist on words meaning precisely what they say. They're the ones who say "Gotcha" when they hear a single medium being labeled "media."

"Mantel" and "Mantle." "Meddle" and "Mettle"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Problem: A couple of words that sound alike but are spelled differently and have different meanings.

"Mantel" = shelf as in the mantel piece over the fire place. "Mantle" = cloak, a long cloak like that worn by Christ or as pictured on Mary, His mother, in most statues of her.

"Meddle" = interfere. "Stop meddling in my affairs." Mettle" = courage. "David showed great mettle in his battle with Goliath."

Rating of Distractibility: = (?) The second word in each pair of words will probably be little known and rarely used.

"Him and me went to the game."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: How can I break my son of the habit of putting "me" in the subject of the sentence?

Answer: Don't lecture him. Simply repeat his statement, substituting the "He" and "I." "He and I went to the game." It'll take a while, but he will gradually gain the habit of using "he," "she" and "I" in the subjects of his sentences.

By the way, students will probably only use this expression in compound (two) subjects. You won't hear any student say "Me am going to the game."

Rating of Distractibility: ***. Your son will either break himself of the habit or he will be mightily embarrassed when he finds himself in a situation in which he wants to speak correctly. Students might have the "right to their own language," but listeners also have the right to label people who use "him" and "me" in the subject of their sentences as "illiterate."

"Like" and "As"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What is the difference between "like" and "as"?

Answer: "Like" is a preposition followed by an object: "It was just like him to do that."

"As" is a conjunction followed by a subject and verb: "As I Said...." "Tell it as it is...." "Tell it like it is" has become so much a part of the language that the correct usage does not sound right. However, the misuse of the two words does jar in other contexts, i.e., "Like I was saying....."

Rating of Distractibility: (***). And then there is the teen who prefaces every other word with "like": "Like, she's like not a like very good like person." UGH! As " 'Enry 'Iggins" said in My Fair Lady, the teen should be strung up for the cold blooded murder of the English tongue--or something like that.

"Liable" and "Likely"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: "Don't 'liable' and 'likely' mean the same thing?

Answer: Not exactly. They both mean "probable." However, "liable" is for an unpleasant probability and implies responsibility: "If he writes that, he is liable to be sued."

"Likely" means that something is simply probably going to happen: "I think we are likely to see the sun sometime today."

"Liable," therefore, has a negative connotation and implies both probability and responsibility. "Likely" is neutral.

Rating of distractibility: (**) People misuse these term often and often other people don't notice, especially in conversation. Of course, in writing, you want to be more precise. And "liable" has a very distinctive and special meaning. RayS.

"Lie" and "Lay"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Comment: People who should know better--the news media, print and TV--completely blow the distinction between "lie" and "lay." I'd like a nickel for every time I have heard the reporters on Philadelphia's Channel 6 Action News say, "...laying in the streets." I rarely have heard these terms used in recent years on those newscasts. I think the station's management has proscribed their use, knowing that almost 100% of the time they will be used incorrectly. I've even seen its misuse in that most well-edited-newspaper-in-the-world the Wall Street Journal.

Advice: I have some advice: If you are concerned about using these terms correctly, don't use them. Write or speak around them. Find some other words to express the same idea. If you try to use "lie" and "lay," you will almost certainly be wrong.

"Lie," "lay," "lain," "lying" and don't forget, "...had lain" mean to rest or recline. "He lay on the sidewalk." "He was lying on the sidewalk."

"Lay," "laid," "laid," "laying" and don't forget, "...had laid" mean to put or place. "He lay the hammer on the table." "He laid the hammer on the table." "Lay, laid, laid" take a direct object; you put something somewhere. With "lie," "lay" and "lain," there is no direct object.

I predict that in the distant future, "lay," "laid" and "laid" will obliterate "lie," "lay" and "lain." The latter will become extinct.

Rating of Distractibility: ***. The mistake is as obvious and egregious in speaking as in writing. In speaking, it is more difficult to sort through the choices in an instant. In writing, you really should not make the mistake. You have time to get it right. However, if you do make the mistake, you can be comforted that you have almost 100% of other Americans who will make the same mistake. RayS.

"It's" and "Its"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I'm totally confused. What's the difference between "it's" and "its"?

Answer: Congratulations! You have just identified the most frequent mistake in writing. The possessive pronouns are "his," "hers," "yours," and "its." Not an apostrophe among them. "The dog scratched the fleas buried under its coat."

"It's" is the contraction of "It is." "It's a great idea."

Easy to test: "He moved into the shadow to gain its protection." Substitute "it's." Fit? If not, then use "its."

Rating of Distractibility: ***. Lots of people make this mistake, but that doesn't make it correct. If it will help you to feel any better, there's a logical reason that people make the mistake. The singular possessive of regular nouns is signaled by the 's as in the dog's coat, the boy's baseball cap, etc. But the possessive PRONOUNS do not use an apostrophe. Hope this helps. RayS.

"Insure" and "Ensure"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Every once in a while I see the word "ensure" instead of "insure." Is there a difference?

Answer: Even I wasn't "sure" (pun) of this one. Took the explanation right from the NYT Manual of Style and Usage. "Insure" means to buy insurance. "Ensure" means to make certain. "His positive efforts ensured his success."

Rating of Distractibility: (*). The trouble is not many people know the difference and will use "insure" for everything, buying insurance and making certain. The word "ensure" does not appear in print very often. I have a feeling that only the New York Times's editors know the distinction. I'll have to check the Times some time to see if that august newspaper uses the word "ensure" at all.

"Incredible" and "Incredulous"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I know that "incredible" means "unbelievable." What does "incredulous" mean?

Answer: In meaning, the two words are pretty close, causing the confusion that people sometimes have in using them. "Incredible" means literally, "not able to be believed," or "hard to believe." "His speed around the track was incredible" means that his record speed was hard for anyone to believe.

"Incredulous" means literally "full of not believing," or "I don't believe it." While you will hear or read "incredible" frequently, you will hear or read "incredulous" infrequently. "She was incredulous at his behavior" means she could not believe the way he behaved. "When he testified before the jury, she was incredulous at his distortions of the truth" means that she could not believe he would lie the way he did.

The distinction between the two? "Incredible" = Anyone would find it hard to believe. "Incredulous" means "I" or "she" or "we" or "they" personally cannot believe it.

Rating of Distractibility: (***). Educated people know the difference between these two words. To substitute one for the other will raise eyebrows. RayS.

"Incident"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question. "So and so was murdered at 5th and Elm. The incident was witnessed by...." Why does the New York Times Manual of Style and Usage disagree with the use of "incident" in this news story?

Answer: Don't describe an event with serious consequences as an "incident." The term trivializes. Make the description fit the magnitude of the event: "Murder" is murder; a "fatal accident" is a deadly event. "Incident" is often used in newspapers to refer to murders and deadly accidents.

Rating of Distractibility: (**). We're so used to the term "incident" in newspapers and on TV newscasts to describe an event regardless of the gravity of its consequences that most of us probably won't notice it. Careful uses of language will.

"Imply" and "Infer"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's the difference between "Imply" and "Infer"?

Answer: "I 'imply' that you are guilty" means I have not said so directly but that is my meaning. You "infer" from my remarks that you think I am guilty. You have not said so directly, but I think that is what you are suggesting. Both words mean "suggest indirectly." The speaker "implies." The listener "infers." The writer "implies." The reader "infers."

Some pretty well educated people confuse these two words.

Rating of Distractibility: (***). The confusion between these two words is another of the "scratching-nails-on-the-blackboard" mistakes. If you don't get these two words right, many an amateur language critic will be on your case.

By the way, I saw "can't help but" in a column by a respected columnist in the West Chester, PA., Daily Local News for Monday, June 23, 2008, p. A3. Tsk! RayS.

"Implement"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I'm always being told to "implement" the curriculum. What exactly does "implement" mean?

Answer: First, as a noun, an implement is a tool. "When you are about to plant your vegetables, gather all of your gardening implements into one place." Nothing wrong with the word in that context.

As a verb, "implement" means to carry out some goal or task. The problem is that people have become tired of hearing it ad nauseam. It's a word that people use without thinking. It also makes the writer or speaker sound important. "I need to help people implement the curriculum." Whenever possible, use some simpler, alternative term for this overused, pompous piece of jargon: "fulfill," "accomplish," or "do," etc. "Will you please use the techniques suggested in the ninth-grade curriculum on grammar with your students?"

Rating of Distractibility: (*). By now most people are so accustomed to the monotonous repetition of the word "implement" as a verb that not many will notice it. However, if you use some simpler word, your directions are likely to be clearer, more definite and have greater effect on the people you are appealing to. Your listeners or readers are more likely to take notice of what you have said. If they hear the word "implement," they will fall instantly to sleep. "Implement" is a three-syllable soporific.

By the way, as a curriculum coordinator, I used the word many a time. I'm guilty in the first degree.

"Impact"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's so wrong about "His hitting has impacted the outcome of the game"?

Answer: We can thank TV sports commentators and, especially, local news anchors and reporters, for using "impact" as a synonym for "affect" and "effect." "Impact" is a heavy blow: "The impact of the tornado on the building was like being hit by a freight train at full speed." For most influences, "affect" or "effect" is sufficient to convey your meaning: "His hitting has had an effect on the outcome of the game."

And don't use "impacted" unless you are referring to the pain in your wisdom tooth. It's an ugly word.

Rating of Distraction: **. The use of "impact" for "affect" or "effect" is another example of how Americans love to inflate or exaggerate their use of language. People are so familiar with hearing "impact" and "impacted" in situations that are not powerful influences that few people will notice. People who use words with precision will notice.

"Hopefully"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's all the brouhaha about using "hopefully"?

Answer: As a practical matter, take my word for it: Do not use "hopefully" in writing. 95% of the time you will be wrong. If you must use it, test it by substituting "I hope." If "I hope" does not fit, don't use "hopefully."

Trust me on this usage: Understanding when to use "hopefully" correctly is more trouble than it is worth. Usually, the word is not necessary anyway. Use "I hope" instead.

Rating of Distractibility: (**) in writing. In writing, people have grown so used to "hopefully" that most won't notice that it is used incorrectly. (*) in speaking. In speaking, listeners will be unable to figure out that quickly whether "hopefully" is used correctly or not.

"Can't help but...."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's wrong with "I can't help but wonder."

Answer: Double negative, "can't" and "but." You should say, "I can't help wondering."

Rating of Distractibility: ***. Not only is "can't help but" a double negative, a grammatical "mistake," but "can't help wondering" flows. What's wrong with double negatives? They often confuse meaning. If you find a sentence with a double negative, you will almost certainly have to re-read it to make sure of the meaning. And having to re-read the sentence interrupts the flow of thought. RayS.

"Hanged" and "Hung"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Is it OK to say, "He was hung"?

Answer: People are "hanged." Pictures are "hung." Why? I don't know, but that's the distinction.

Rating of Distractibility: ***. Another example of usage that eventually will go to one or the other. I'm guessing that the winner will eventually be "hung."

"Graduate from...." "Be graduated from...."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Is "He graduated high school acceptable?"

Answer: No. This usage is unacceptable and it grates on my ear. This expression is one of my pet hates. You GRADUATE FROM Harvard University. You will BE GRADUATED FROM Harvard University. But you DO NOT "...graduate Harvard University." That expression sounds as if you are giving the degree to Harvard University and sending Harvard University out into the world to make a living.

Rating of Distractibility: ***. UGH!

"Farther" and "Further"

Levels of Distractibility: Who Cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I always get "further" and "farther" mixed up. I know that one means distance and the other means additional, but which is which?

Answer: When I'm talking I mix them up also. They sound too much alike. You're right: "farther" means distance: "He walked farther down the hall." "Further" means "additional," as in "I have nothing further to say." Keeping them straight in writing shouldn't be a problem. You can always look them up again. But speaking.... Think of the FAR in "farther."

Rating of Distractibility: In writing, (***). In speaking, (**).

"Fulsome"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I've heard the word "fulsome." Does it mean "full of"?

Answer: In general, yes, but overdone and effusive as in "fulsome praise." It's not a compliment. The word "fulsome" can also mean offensive as in "Max Goldman in the movie Grumpy Old Men encounters a fulsome odor thanks to the fish deposited in his car by his neighbor John Gustafson." However, that meaning is no longer common; it's out of date. You'll still see it or hear it in that sense, though. Generally, the word "fulsome" means "overdone," "too much."

Rating of Distractibility: **. People who still cling to the early meaning of "fulsome" as "offensive" will think you are wrong when you use it to mean overdone. Best to avoid the word unless it is the absolute perfect word for your meaning. I would write around it. "Fulsome praise" becomes, "flattery."

"Foreword" and "Forward"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I've heard of the word "forward," i.e., "Move forward, not backward." What is a "foreword"?

Answer: You don't read many books. Most nonfiction books come with a "Foreword," a brief introduction that usually summarizes the main ideas of the book in very clear, concise language. Will give you a pretty good understanding of the ideas you will find in the book. Note the "Fore," "before," and "word" in "Fore"-"word."


Rating of Distractibility: ***. People usually misspell "Foreword," "Forward." That's a blatant mistake. I'm always amazed to find publishers who misspell "Foreword" in the published book. Incredible.

"Flaunt" and "Flout"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I never get it right. When I mean "flout," I say "flaunt." When I mean "flaunt," I say "flout." How do I get them straight?

Answer: The confusion between these two words is probably one of the most frequent usage problems. "Flaunt" means to show off: "He flaunted his skill at catching passes by staging a pantomime in the end zone." Meaning, like T.O., he humiliated the opponents by dancing in the end zone after scoring a touchdown on a ten-yard pass.

"Flout" means to defy: "He flouted the rule not to tailgate the car in front of him." Meaning, he kept on tailgating even though he had received at least three tickets from the State Police for doing so.

Rating of Distractibility: ***. This is a "biggie." Make a mistake with these two words, and you will "pay the price" in sneers. Some people would say that anyone who uses either of these two words is probably a snob. Still, these words accurately describe familiar actions.

"One of the few who (is) or (are)...."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: "One of the few who (is) or (are)...." singular based on "One" or plural based on "few"?

Answer: I'm not sure everybody agrees with me on this. Plural. Based on "few." "Who" is the subject of the clause that follows "few," relates to "few" and therefore is plural. "She is one of the FEW who ARE experts in understanding statistics."

Rating of Distractiblity: *. Frankly, both usages sound correct. In fact, using the singular sounds more correct than correctly using the plural. I don't think many people will notice. Be more careful, though, in writing.

"Fewer" and "Less"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: When should you use "fewer" and when should you use "less" ?

Answer: Use "fewer" with things you can count as in "fewer people." People who say "less people" should be....

Use "less" with things you can't count: "less money." BUT: "They have fewer dollars to spend."

How do you avoid the supermarket usage, "two items or less"? You can't. "Fewer" not only has two syllables, it sounds uppity, prissy. You could say, "Customers are limited to two items." But supermarket managers are not going to waste time trying to use correct English. Besides, when the English is incorrect, people notice the item and for the supermarket, that's good.

Some day, I'm guessing, the battle between "fewer" and "less" will result in "less" being used for both. The English language always moves toward simplification. Whenever usage requires too much thought, one usage will take over exclusively and the other will be dropped by the wayside. That's what happened to "You," "thou," and "thee."

Rating of Distractibility: ***. This usage gets the "Scratch Nails on the Blackboard" award for one of the most egregious errors in English.

"Everyone" and "Every one"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Is there a difference between "everyone" (one word) and "every one" (two words)?

Answer: Yes. "Everyone," (one word) means "all." "Everyone is coming to the party."

"Every one" (two words) means each person in a group: "Every one of us will have to vote for our candidate."

Both "Everyone" and "Every one" take a singular verb.

Rating of Distractibility: **. Not many people know the distinction between the two, so not many people will notice if you use one or the other.

"Eminent" and "Imminent"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I know that someone who is "eminent" is a person who is held in honor, known for great achievements, as an "eminent" actor. And I also know that "imminent" means something that is about to occur as "the explosion was 'imminent.' " My problem is that I never can remember how to spell "imminent."

Answer: Break it down into syllables: IM'MIN ent. Association: MINute and imMINent. "If something is imMINent, it will happen in a MINute."

Rating of Distractibility: ***. I think everyone knows the distinction between "eminent" and "imminent." Confuse the two and almost 100% if your readers will be distracted from following your meaning.

"Emigrate" and "Immigrate"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I can never distinguish between "emigrate" and "immigrate." Which one is leaving and which one is coming?

Answer: "Emigrate" means to depart. You "emigrate" from Europe.

You "immigrate" and are an "immigrant" when you arrive.

Both take "from" and "to."

Rating of Distractibility: **. Not too many people care which is used. They both have the same idea--you're either coming (to "immigrate") or going (to "emigrate").

"Either" + Verb

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: If I use "Either," will the verb that follows be singular or plural?

Answer: "Either...is...." Either by itself is singular and takes a singular verb.

"Either a plane or a train is a good way to reach your destination." If both subjects, plane or a train, are singular, the verb that follows is singular.

"Either planes or trains are good ways to reach your destination." If both subjects, planes or trains, following Either are plural, planes or trains, then the verb is plural.

Let's simplify: If you have a compound subject, make both subjects plural (followed by a plural verb) or singular (followed by a singular verb).

Rating of Distractibility: ***. The only complication is if you use a singular subject and a plural subject in the compound subject. Then the subject nearer to the verb requires a plural verb if the subject is plural and a singular verb if the subject is singular. But all of that is silly and creates problems. Make both subjects singular or plural and use the appropriate verb. You can't go wrong.

"West" or "west"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I can never seem to get straight whether to capitalize "east" or "west."

Answer: If it's the section of the country, capitalize. If it is just going in that direction, don't capitalize: "Go west [direction] young man." "The best college football teams seem to be in the West [section of the country], California, for example."

Rating of Distractibility: **.

"Due to" and "Because of"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's wrong with, "Due to the snow, school was canceled?"

Answer: Take my word for it. Always use "Because of...." In only one situation is "due to" correct. It would take too much grammatical explanation to tell you why. And, after reading that explanation in The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage, I'm not sure I understand it. Even that "Bible" of usage throws its hands in the air and says, "...the needed phrase is almost always 'because of.' "

Rating of Distractibility: **

"Disinterested" and "Uninterested"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: What's wrong with "He appears to be disinterested in what he is doing?"

Answer: If he is "DISinterested," he is objective, able to judge fairly an issue that others care deeply about. It is pretty obvious from the context of this sentence that he is "UNinterested," therefore, bored, therefore not putting much energy into it.

If I want someone to decide an issue that is important to me, like the results of a trial, I am expecting the jury to be impartial, therefore, disinterested. On the other hand, if I am employing someone to work hard at a task, I will be most upset if that person is uninterested in what he is doing.

We all have our pet hates when it comes to English usage. The difference between "disinterested" and "uninterested" is my SECOND most pet hate. The first? "Irregardless." RayS.

Rating of Distractibility: ***.




"Disinterested" = impartial; "uninterested" = bored. (***)

"Different from...." and "Different than...."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: ***.

Question: Someone criticized me for saying, "He was different than her." Why?

Answer: If a person or thing is different, then it's "different from...." "He was different from her." The grammatical explanation is that "different from" takes an object of the preposition, "from."

"Than" is a conjunction and must be followed by a subject and verb: "He is different than she (is) in his taste for music."

To be practical, the correct expression will almost always be "different from...." And many people will wince when they read or hear "different than...," which sounds wrong even when it is right, i.e., followed by a subject and verb. When in doubt, use "different from...."

Rating of distractibility: ***.

"Criterion" and "Criteria"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I can't get it straight. Which is it? Criterion or criteria?

Answer: This is an easy one. Criterion is singular: "Which (one) criterion will be most significant?"

Criteria is plural. "Which (multiple) criteria will you be considering?"

Rating of Distractibility: (**). People tend to use "criteria" regardless of whether the standards of evaluation are only one or many. Still, "criterion" means a single standard of evaluation; "criteria" mean two or more standards of evaluation. Can't hurt to be accurate in choice of words. RayS.

"Convince" and "Persuade."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I read somewhere that you have to use the right words with "convince" and "persuade." What are they?

Answer: You convince OF or THAT.... "I am convinced OF his innocence." "I am convinced THAT he is innocent."

You persuade TO: "Persuade him TO join the group."

Note: People interchange "convince" and "persuade." If you can keep OF, THAT and TO in mind , you won't. RayS.

Rating of Distractibility: (**).

"Continual" and "Continuous"

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: Aren't the words "continual" and "continouous" the same?

Answer: Actually there is a significant difference in meaning between them.

"Continual" means doing something over and over."He had the habit of continually saying 'like' when he talked: 'Like when I said, like, that was a, like, bad thing, like, to do.' "

"Continuous" means an uninterrupted activity. "The waterfall sent foaming water plunging continuously to the rocks below."

Rating of Distractibility: (**). I think fewer and fewer people are making the distinction between these two words. RayS.

"Complement" and "Compliment"

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: I know what a compliment is. But what the heck is a "complement"?

Answer: A compliment, of course, is praise or flattery. "He gave me a compliment on my skill as a jump shooter."

"Complement" means to complete. "The team's hitting complemented the pitcher's excellent performance." Think of "COMPLEment means to COMPLEte."

Rating of Distractibility: (**). Not many people know that "complement" is a word, so its misuse will probably not distract that many readers. RayS.

"Chairwoman," "Chairlady" or "Chairperson."

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning: = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning: = ***.

Question: When the leader of a group is not a chairman, but a woman, what do you call her?

Answer: Well, according to the New York Times Manual of Style and Usage, you should use "Chairwoman," but not "Chairlady" or "Chairperson."

Comment: Frankly, all of the choices sound awkward. When in doubt try to write around it, but if you can't, you have the authority of the New York Times for "Chairwoman." I have even resorted to "the Chair." But I try to write around it if I can. In my professional English education journals, I almost always see "Chairperson." RayS.

Rating of Distractibility: (*) No easy answer for this one. They all sound awkward.

"Cannon" and "Canon."

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: I keep confusing the spelling of "cannon" with "canon." What is "canon" anyhow?

Answer: "Cannon" is artillery. It has two "n's."

The most frequent use of "canon" today is with literature: the "canon" is a list of literary works that experts believe to be the best that has been written. In short, they are the classics of literature. If you check the dictionary definition of "canon," you will find it related to works in the Christian religion and to law ("canon law"). But today you are most likely to hear the word in reference to the accepted classics in literature.

Rating of Distractibility: ***. Since the words have no relationship in meaning, people are likely to recognize the misuse of one for the other.

Cancel; Canceled; Canceling; Cancellation.

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: When do you double the final "l" in the word "cancel"?

Answer: A little known American spelling rule is that if the accent falls on the first syllable, you retain the single final consonant: can'cel, can'celed, can'celing. If the accent falls on a later syllable, you double the final consonant: cancella'tion.

"Can'cel"; "can'celed"; "can'celing"; "cancel'lation": The first three have the accent on the first syllable; therefore, a single "l." The last item has the accent on the third syllable, so the "l" is doubled.

Rating of Distractibility: (*) I don't think most people know this American spelling rule and it gets mixed up with the British habit of doubling final consonants for almost everything. Therefore, I don't think many people will even notice whether you follow the rule. In fact, to me, the single "l" in "canceling" and "canceled" does not look right.

"Bring" and "Take."

Levels of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: What's the difference between "bring" and "take"?

Answer: "Bring" toward. Example: "Bring it to me."

"Take" away. Example: "Take this to my friend down the street."

Rating of Distractibility: *

Comment: Even I cannot think quickly enough to distinguish between the two when I'm conversing with a friend. Probably more noticeable when I am writing and then I do check to make sure of the distinction. RayS.

"Barred" and "Banned"

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: Can you say that people are banned from a place?


Answer: No. People are "barred. " Books are "banned."

Rating of Distractibility: **.

Comment: I wonder how many of my readers knew the distinction between "barred" and "banned"? RayS.

"Bad" and "Badly"

Level of Distractibility (i.e., the degree to which readers are distracted from meaning by mistaken usage): Who cares? = *; some people will be distracted = **; many people will be distracted = ***.

Question: When shoud I use "bad" and "badly"?

Use "bad" after the verbs "be," "appear," "look," "feel," "seem," "smell" or "taste." Example: "I feel bad." I could give a lengthy grammatical explanation of why these verbs, called "linking verbs," are different from action verbs, but the explanation would be complicated and not worth the time and effort.

Note: If the correct use of "bad" after these verbs sounds "bad," write around it. Example: "He appears bad." "He appears to be seriously hurt." You will probably use more precise word choice. Example: "It sounds bad." "His choice of words is awkward."

Use "badly" after an action verb: "He has been hurt badly. "

The bottom line? NEVER, NEVER say or write, "I feel badly."

As the New York Times Manual of Style and Usage says, "Someone who smells bad should bathe; someone who smells badly should see a doctor."

Rating of Distractibility: ***

"Affect" and "Effect."

Level of Distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: What are the differences in meaning between "affect" and "effect"?

Most frequent use. “Affect” as a verb: “How does her singing affect your mood?” [Please do not substitute "impact" for "affect" in a sentence like this one. "Impact" should be reserved for striking with strong force like a bomb on a building.]

"Affect" as a verb: “She affected (pretended) a certain air of sophistication.”

“Affect” (noun): emotion. Labeled by most sources as “psychological jargon” for which you will have almost no need.

“Effect” (Verb) bring about: “He effected (brought about) a change in her mood from contemplative to lighthearted."

Most frequent use. “Effect” (Noun) “What are the effects on people’s moods after three weeks of continuous rain?”

Rating of distractibility: "Affect" / "Impact" ***
"Affect"/ "Effect" ***

"Like" and "As."

Words Frequently Confused

Levels of distractibility: Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted from your meaning = **. Many people will be distracted from your meaning = ***.

Question: When should I use "like" and when should I use "as"?

Answer:
A clause has a subject and verb. "As" should precede a clause, a subject and verb--"...as he said." "He" is the subject; "said" is the verb.

"Like" is a preposition. A preposition should be followed by its object, the object of a preposition''--"...spoken like a trooper." "Like" is the preposition, "trooper" is its object.

Of course, Howard Cosell on Monday Night Football destroyed forever the distinction between "like" and "as" when he repeatedly said, "Tell it like it is." The careful speaker or writer will maintain the distinction.

Rating of Distractibility: ***.

And then there is the problem of teenagers who interject the word "like" between every other word. Teachers should make teens aware of a habit that is most annoying to anyone who tries to understand what they are saying. Who can concentrate on meaning when every other word is "like"? All I hear is the "like."

RayS.

"Anxious" and "Eager."

I will rate each set of confusing words as to their “distractibility,” that is, the degree to which readers will be distracted from the writers’ meaning if they fail to use the accurate word. Who cares? = *. Some people will be distracted = **. Many people will be distracted = ***. Usage problems distract readers from concentrating on meaning.

Question: What is the difference between "anxious" and "eager"?

Answer: "anxious" = uneasy, worried: "I was anxious about his safety."

"Eager" = enthusiastic for: "I was eager to hear the rest of his story."

Rating of Distractibility: **

"Amount" and "Number"

I will rate each set of confusing words as to their “distractibility,” that is, the degree to which readers will be distracted from the writers' meaning if they fail to use the accurate word. * = Who cares? ** = Some people will be distracted. *** = Many people will be distracted. Usage problems distract readers from concentrating on meaning.

Question: How do I distinguish between using “amount” and “number”?

Answer: Use “amount” with quantities of material that cannot be counted individually: “…a large amount of cement,” “…an adequate amount of potato salad.”

Use “number” with things that can be counted individually: “…a number of people,” “…threw out a number of baseballs.”

Comment: A usage that particularly irritates me is as follows: "...a large amount of people." Ugh! RayS.

Rating of Distractibility: ***

"Among" and "Between"

For the foreseeable future, I am going to try to straighten out the differences between or among words that are often confused. I will rate each set of confusing words as to their “distractibility,” that is, the degree to which readers will be distracted from the writers’ meaning if they fail to use the accurate word. * = Who cares? ** = Some people will be distracted. *** = Many people will be distracted. Usage problems distract readers from concentrating on meaning.

Question: When do you use “among” and “between”?

Answer: “Among” is used when referring to more than two or a group, as in “choosing from among five contestants.” “Between” refers to choosing between two, as in, “You must select between the red car and the black car.”

By the way, a related usage problem: ALWAYS use “Between you and ME….” (Object of the preposition “between.”)

Rating of Distractibility: ***

Alumna; Alumnus; Alumnae; Alumni.

For the foreseeable future, I am going to try to straighten out the differences between or among words that are often confused. I will rate each set of confusing words as to their “distractibility,” that is, the degree to which readers will be distracted from the writers' meaning if they fail to use the accurate word. * = Who cares? ** = Some people will be distracted. *** = Many people will be distracted. Usage problems distract readers from concentrating on meaning.

Question: What are the differences between “alumna,” “alumnus,” ”alumnae” and “alumni”?

Answer: “Alumna” = individual female graduate; “alumnus” = individual male graduate;

“Alumnae” = two or more female graduates; “alumni” = two or more male graduates.

Question: How do you refer to a mixed company of graduates?

Answer: Refer to them as “graduates.”

Rating of Distractibility: **

"Adverse" and "Averse"

For the foreseeable future, I am going to try to straighten out the differences between or among words that are often confused. I will rate each set of confusing words as to their “distractibility,” that is, the degree to which readers will be distracted from the writers' meaning if they fail to use the accurate word. * = Who cares? ** = Some people will be distracted. *** = Many people will be distracted. Usage problems distract readers from concentrating on meaning.

Some mistakes are downright laughable. Not long ago, a headline in the West Chester, PA, Daily Local News confused the word “Annunciation” and “Enunciation.” An annunciation is an announcement. In the Christian tradition, the feast of the Annunciation celebrates the angel’s announcement that the Virgin Mary was with child. “Enunciation” means to pronounce or articulate. The substitution of “annunciation” for “enunciation” was such a laugher that I even forget what the article was about. How’s that for distraction?

Question: What’s the difference between “adverse” and “averse”?

Answer: “Adverse” = opposed, “…adverse circumstances….”
“Averse” = unwilling, reluctant, “…averse to taking a risk….”

Rating of Distractibility: **

Essay Exams

Question: How do I "ace" an essay exam?

Answer: Turn the question into your thesis sentence or main idea with supporting topics. Turn each of the topics into supporting paragraphs.

Sample Essay question: “What were the three causes of the X war?”

Thesis sentence: restate the question as a statement and add the supporting topics.

"The three causes of the X War were economic expansion, ethnic hatred and the king's personal ambition." (Each of the three topics is completed by supporting details.)

After reading the opening thesis sentence, the instructor knows exactly what the writer is going to say, notes the explanation of each topic and can quickly dispose of the paper. Instructors love students who know how to answer essay questions. They can read them quickly.

All the best. RayS.

5. Revising and Editing

Question: What are some practical methods for revising and editing my work?

Answer: I have already discussed the following steps: 1. analyze model; 2. brainstorm topic; 3. construct main idea and supporting topics; 4. draft, including final summary paragraph and introductory material. Today, I will discuss 5. revising and editing.

5. Revising and Editing.

Revising: to be practical, I define revising as deleting, inserting, replacing and moving text. My focus in revising is on meaning, including unity and clarity, and style, including smooth expression and elimination of the uses of "there," "thing," "it," "get" and words unnecessarily repeated.

Editing: I define editing as correcting grammatical problems, including usage, punctuation, sentence structure (run-on sentences, fragments, dangling modifiers, parallel structure, etc.), capitalization and spelling. The purpose of editing is to polish your written expression by removing distractions to the reader.

The purpose for both revising and editing is to establish "flow" in which the reader begins to read and continues, undistracted, from start to finish.

In revising, I have developed some techniques to help writers check unity, clarity, and smoothness. With editing, I have some suggestions for spelling and grammar.

Unity. Work with a partner. Fold a sheet of paper in half. On one side of the folded sheet of paper, write the main idea of your composition. Without looking at your version of the main idea, your partner reads your composition and on the the other side of the folded paper writes the main idea of the composition. Now open the paper and compare the main ideas as written by you and your partner. If the main ideas are similar, the composition is probably unified. If they differ, you probably need to change the main idea or thesis sentence, topic sentences and/or the concluding paragraph.

Clarity. Your partner reads your composition silently. Ask your partner not to express any judgment as to whether the composition is good or poor and not to point out mistakes in grammar or spelling. The partner's only responsibility is to read the composition and to place question marks in the margin whenever he or she has a problem understanding ideas that you have expressed. You decide whether to clarify the ideas that have been questioned.

Smoothness. You read the composition aloud to your partner. Whenever you stumble while reading aloud or have to go back to re-read, you should underline that part of the composition. Later, you can decide whether the language of the underlined sentences or phrases should be revised to improve smoothness of expression. A variation of this step is to have your partner read the composition aloud and underline whenever he or she stumbles or has to re-read.

Spelling. You or your partner begin looking for misspelled words by reading from the last word in the composition to the first word. Reading normally from beginning to end will cause you to miss the details of words as you supply their meaning. Reading from the last word to the first will enable you to read the words without the meaning, causing you to see the details of each word. This technique is a pain, but it is also probably the only way to avoid misspelled words and typos if you are not using a computer. And even if you are using a computer, you should still read from last word to first word in case you used "to" instead of "too" and "of" instead of "off." The spelling checker will not pick up those mistakes.

Grammar. On the other hand, grammatical problems, I think, are best detected by reading normally. You will be able to note if you have left out one of the commas in interrupting expressions and, if you hesitate while reading, you will, more than likely, need to examine the structure of your sentence for a possible grammatical problem. For example, you might have inadvertently used the passive voice ("It was decided to give random drug tests...") when the active voice ("Mr. Jones decided to order random drug tests....") would have been more direct and clear.

Keep in mind that the purpose of revising and editing is to polish your expression.

In using the writing process with exposition, I have suggested the following steps: 1. analyze model; 2. brainstorm topic; 3. construct main idea and supporting topics; 4. draft, including final summary paragraph and introductory material; 5. revise and edit.

All the best. RayS.

4. Writing the Draft

Question: What's the best way to write a draft?

Answer: I have already explained steps 1. Model; 2. brainstorm; 3. main idea and topic sentences. Today I will explain about 4. writing the draft.

4. Draft. Based on your main idea and your supporting topics, write a draft, including the final summary paragraph and your introductory material.

Begin with the main idea and supporting topics. Fill out the topics with paragraphs and conclude with a final summary paragraph. Be sure to do this step quickly. Don’t spend a lot of time on correctness. You will have time to go back over the draft later. Just complete the draft, as rough as it is, as quickly as you can. Your purpose is to finish your draft. Don’t forget to complete the final summary paragraph. You will now have the main idea, the supporting paragraphs with their topic sentences and the final summary paragraph.

Last step in the draft: complete your introductory material.

Review: Main idea or thesis sentence + Supporting paragraph with topic sentence + Supporting paragraph with topic sentence + Supporting paragraph with topic sentence + Final summary paragraph.

Introductory Material. The purpose of introductory material is to catch your readers’ attention. The best model for interesting introductory material is The Reader’s Digest. Here are some examples of introductory material from The Reader’s Digest:

Incident. Janette and Greg Fennel had just returned to their San Francisco home one night in 1995 when two gunmen suddenly slipped under the garage door as it was closing. The men locked the couple in the car trunk, placed their nine-month-old-son—still strapped in his car seat—on the garage floor, and sped off with their captives. An hour later the thieves opened the trunk, robbed Janette, 45, and Greg, 50, of their money and jewelry, shut the trunk and fled. This introductory material will be followed by the thesis sentence.

Description. April 1999: Don Massey sits at a plank table in a hundred-year-old log cabin on a remote cow camp in the Book Cliffs, a rocky escarpment in eastern Utah. A window so thick with smoke that it looks like greased paper filters cold light, framing Don’s face and hat. It’s only midmorning, but he has been up since five. His face is drawn and hardened from the frigid temperature. Outside a deer comes down to a frozen stock pond, tapping at the ice with its hoof. This introductory material will be followed by the thesis sentence.

Quotation: Carman Moloney was desperate to save her mother’s life. That’s why the 31-year-old woman kept a card pinned to the sun visor of her car. Addressed to emergency medical personnel, it read: “My mother is on the third floor of the University of Maryland Medical Center. If I am in an accident, please make sure my organs are sent directly to her.” This introductory material will be followed by the thesis sentence.

Startling Statement. Bud Shuster. Name mean anything? Probably not. But it should. E.G. “Bud” Shuster (R., Pa.) is the most powerful Congressman you’ve never heard of. This introductory material will be followed by the thesis sentence.

Statistics and a Quote. Randall Wolf could not believe it. His wife’s credit-card statement showed that she was being charged an interest rate of 26.9 percent—up from 15.9 percent—on a credit card from First USA Bank. “I almost fell over,” says the Raleigh, NC., man. This introductory material will be followed by the thesis sentence.

Reader’s Digest’s articles give many other possibilities of techniques for introductory material.

The structure of your final draft should look something like this:
1. Introductory material.
2. Main idea or thesis sentence (usually attached to the end of the introductory material).
3. Supporting paragraph with topic sentence.
4. Supporting paragraph with topic sentence.
5. Supporting paragraph with topic sentence.
6. Final summary paragraph.

Tomorrow: 5. Revising and editing.

2. Brainstorming. 3. Thesis and Topic Sentences.

Question: How do I apply your “writing process” to expository writing?

Answer: Yesterday, I demonstrated a model for exposition. Today I will discuss brainstorming and constructing the main idea or thesis sentence and topic sentences.

Review: The five-step writing process for exposition: 1. Study a model. 2. Brainstorm the topic. 3. Write the main idea and topics for topic sentences. 4. Write a draft, including final paragraph and introductory material. 5. Revise and edit.

2. Brainstorming. I don’t think I need to demonstrate how to brainstorm again. I have already done several examples of brainstorming in my blog, “Q & A on Writing.” But a quick review might be in order.

You brainstorm a topic when you are not sure what you want to say about it. Spend 10 to 15 minutes on brainstorming. Make them 10 or 15 intense minutes of listing ideas about your topic. Use words, phrases and short sentences. Pay no attention to correctness in grammar or spelling, which will only slow you up or even stop you cold. When you think you have emptied your mind of ideas on the topic, keep trying for the full 10 or 15 minutes. Your best ideas will come when you think you have no more to give. Stop exactly at the end of the 10 or 15 minutes you have set.

3. Constructing the main idea or thesis sentence together with the supporting topics for topic sentences. Look over your brainstormed ideas. Try to summarize your main point in one sentence. Example: “Autumn is a time of great natural beauty, a time for Halloween memories, and a time for walking at night in the fields under a bright harvest moon.” The supporting topics for topic sentences are “great natural beauty,” “Halloween memories” and “walking in the fields at night under a bright harvest moon.” The topic sentences support the thesis sentence or main idea.

Below are some examples of original thesis sentences done by students in my classes together with the improved, more specific thesis sentence and the implied topics for topic sentences.

Original thesis: My ambition is to get my doctorate in psychology. Improved (more specific) thesis: My ambition is to earn my doctorate in psychology and then to work with the homeless and with teenagers to help them lead productive lives. First supporting topic: earn my doctorate; second supporting topic: work with the homeless; third supporting topic: work with teenagers.

Original thesis: Civility is a forgotten value in today’s world, especially in controversy, on the road and with consumers. Improved (more specific) thesis: Civility is important when discussing controversial issues, when dealing with other motorists and when solving consumers’ problems. First supporting topic is civility in discussing controversial issues; second supporting topic is civility when dealing with other motorists; and the third supporting topic is civility when dealing with consumers.

Original thesis: As a nurse, my job is to relieve the patient’s anxiety, to be accurate, and to help the patient’s loved ones. Improved (more specific) thesis: As a nurse, my job is relieve the patient’s anxiety, to be accurate in dispensing medications and in keeping records, and to help the patient’s loved ones to understand the nature of the illness. The first supporting topic is to deal with the patient’s anxiety; the second supporting topic is to be accurate in dispensing medication and in keeping records; the third supporting topic is to explain clearly to loved ones the nature of the patient’s disease.

The topic sentences and middle paragraphs should clearly support the thesis sentence or main idea.

The thesis sentence or main idea represents the “tell them what you are going to tell them" in my model of an expository composition.

The topic sentences and the paragraphs that follow them represent the “tell them” in my model of the structure of expository writing.

Don’t ever ignore the topic sentence. A friend of mine who just completed his doctoral thesis in engineering told me what he learned about the usefulness of the topic sentence: "The topic sentences keep you on target. When it came time to defend my dissertation, I simply put together all of my topic sentences in one place. All I needed to know was in those topic sentences."

Tomorrow: writing a draft.

All the best. RayS.

Model of an Expository Composition

Question: How do I apply the writing process to exposition?

Answer: 1. If necessary, study a model.
2. Brainstorm the topic.
3. Define the main idea.
4. Write a draft, including introductory material and summary concluding paragraph.
5. Revise and edit.

Let’s take it one step at a time. The model for expository writing is “Tell them what you are gong to tell them. Tell them. Tell them what you told them.”

The structure of an expository composition is as follows:1. Introductory material.
2. The main idea or thesis sentence. (Tell them what you are going to tell them.)
3. Topic sentences and middle paragraphs. (Tell them.)
4. Final, summary paragraph. (Tell them what you told them.)

What follows is an example of an expository composition: Bold face: main idea and topic sentences. Italics: introductory material and final paragraph.

Tailgaters, Speeders and Slow Pokes
I was driving on a two-lane road winding through the Chester County, Pennsylvania, countryside with houses on either side and an unbroken yellow line in the middle of the road. That yellow line meant to me, “Do not pass.” I was behind a red Dodge pickup truck that was moving at exactly the speed limit of 25 miles an hour. I thought the driver could have driven a little faster. After all, the police do not pick drivers up unless they are going more than 10 miles over the speed limit, and the road, as far as I could see, was straight and clear. However, the driver ahead of me steadfastly maintained his speed at 25 miles an hour. I relaxed and decided to follow at a safe distance.

“Oh, oh,” I said to myself as I looked in the rear view mirror. Another pickup truck was barreling up the road behind me and slowed only when he was inches from my bumper. Impatiently, the driver of the truck behind me kept moving his vehicle out into the middle of the road, looking beyond my car. What could I do? The truck in front of me continued to drive at exactly the speed limit of 25 miles per hour. I could feel the frustration and anger of the driver behind me.

Suddenly, ignoring the yellow line, the driver of the truck behind me pulled out and began to pass. At exactly that moment, the driver of the truck in front of me put on his left-turn signal and started to turn into a driveway of a house on the left. You guessed it! The truck from behind me plowed broadside into the truck ahead of me as he pulled into the driveway. Luckily, nobody was hurt, but this incident illustrates the types of driving habits that cause accidents.The driving habits of tailgaters, speeders and slow pokes can kill.

Tailgaters can kill. Each morning, I prepare to turn right on to Hall Road, the downslope of a hill. I look to the left. No cars as far as I can see. Quickly, I make my right turn and push my speed up to 40 miles per hour, about 5 miles above the speed limit. I look into my rear view mirror and, just as quickly, a car is only inches from my rear bumper. Where did he come from? A moment ago, not a car was in sight behind me.

I am already over the speed limit, but this grouch seems to be pushing me to go even faster. My emotions explode. I want to make an obscene gesture, but I have learned to restrain myself. People have been shot for doing just that. I maintain my speed at 40 miles per hour and think about what could happen, even at this speed, if a deer suddenly crossed the road. Or worse! School bus stops dot Hall Road. What if a child wandered across the road? Would the tailgater be able to stop without smashing my car, him and me and causing the death or maiming of the child? Tailgating can kill.

Speeders can kill. Just last night, Action News featured the grim story of a 16-year-old boy on a back road who was driving extremely fast. He hit a bump in the road, the car went airborne, he lost control, the car rolled onto its top and slammed into a tree. One of his four passengers was killed instantly. A second faces a life of paralysis from the waist down. Another had been upgraded to “serious” condition. The driver, with barely a scratch, was treated and released from the hospital. This story is repeated all across the country, almost every day. Why can’t people who speed understand that their actions can kill?

Slowpokes can kill. I am on an Interstate. The speed limit is 65 miles an hour. I try to stay in the right lane because everyone else is passing at 70, 80, 85 miles an hour. Suddenly in front of me is a driver doing 45 miles an hour, 20 miles under the speed limit. I hit my brakes and breathe a sigh of relief when I avoid ramming into him. I look to the left, pull out and pass him, but as I do so, I look at the driver: he is gripping the wheel with both hands and doggedly maintaining his speed at 45 miles per hour. He is doing exactly the minimum speed, so he can’t be ticketed. I wonder. Suppose I hadn’t been paying attention. Suppose I had seen too late that he was going so slowly? I shudder. Slowpokes can kill.

Tailgaters, speeders and slow pokes have annoying habits that go far beyond making other drivers angry. They kill.

The main idea or thesis sentence and the topic sentences were in bold face. The introductory material and the final, summary paragraph were in italics.

A model of an expository composition.

Next: 2. brainstorming and 3. defining a main idea or thesis sentence.